<\/p>\n
This article series is now available as a professionally formatted, distraction free ebook to read offline at your leisure. Click here to buy.<\/a> <\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n From antiquity to the modern day, society has been having a \u201cGreat Conversation\u201d about the big ideas of life.<\/p>\n What is love? What is courage? Does Truth exist? If so, how do you access it?<\/p>\n You can find attempts at answering these questions throughout the great works of Western philosophy, theology, and literature.<\/p>\n Every conversation has a person who breaks the ice and starts the discussion, and the Great Conversation in the West is no different.<\/p>\n Its initiator was Plato: Ancient Greek. Student of Socrates. Founder of the Academy of Athens. Primogenitor of Western culture.<\/p>\n As Alfred Whitehead put it so succinctly, all philosophy — all Western thought — is just \u201ca footnote to Plato.\u201d<\/p>\n Many of the big questions that we\u2019re still grappling with today originated with Plato. And these lines of inquiry concern not just the ethical and political, but even questions cosmologists and physicists are still trying to figure out, like the nature of reality. Over 2,000 years ago, Plato was plumbing those very same issues.<\/p>\n Thus, to understand the world today, every modern citizen needs to have a basic understanding of this man who lived a couple millennia back. For that reason, we offer this relatively short, accessible primer on Plato and his philosophy. While it is not exhaustive by design, it will allow those not familiar with him to gain a basic grasp of his big ideas, and enable them to better engage in the Great Conversation as it continues to unfold.<\/p>\n [aesop_chapter title=”Chapter 1: The Life of Plato” bgtype=”img” full=”on” img=”https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/\/2016\/07\/plato-life_1.jpg” bgcolor=”#888888″]<\/p>\n <\/p>\n To understand Plato\u2019s philosophy, it helps to understand his upbringing. Plato was born around 428\/427 BC and entered a world in tumult. During the several years previous to his birth, a plague ravaged Athens, killing one-third of the population, including the great Athenian statesman and general, Pericles. Around the same time, Athens and Sparta began the Peloponnesian War, which was waged until 404 BC. All of Plato\u2019s childhood and early adulthood passed under the shadow of this war, and it\u2019s likely that Plato himself served as a cavalryman in one of its last battles.<\/p>\n Plato not only grew up witnessing the conflict between these two city-states, but also had a front row seat to the strife that roiled the citizens in his own backyard. The dual scourges of war and disease destabilized an already chaotic Athens, leading to endless political power struggles, some of which involved his closest kin.<\/p>\n Plato\u2019s family and relatives were aristocrats and held prominent positions in the Athenian government. Being part of the powerful upper crust, they were suspicious of democracy, particularly the radical form of it encouraged by Pericles. In fact, Plato\u2019s father was a member of the oligarchic Council of 300 that, after the Athenians\u2019 defeat at Sicily, overthrew the radically democratic assembly that was in power at the time.<\/p>\n So too, Plato\u2019s great uncle, Critias, was a member of the Thirty Tyrants, an Athenian puppet government set up by Sparta after they finally emerged victorious from the Peloponnesian War. While Plato had high hopes that the Thirty Tyrants would restore stability, rationality, and intelligence to Athens, his hopes were dashed. During their reign, the Tyrants, led by Critias, went on the warpath, executing and exiling Athenian citizens who expressed pro-democratic sentiments or who simply weren\u2019t loyal enough to the oligarchic regime.<\/p>\n Supporters of democracy fled Athens and marshaled together an army to overthrow the Thirty Tyrants. The coup was successful, and democracy was restored to Athens<\/a> in 403 BC. The first democratic government was relatively moderate. However, the subsequent government was radically democratic — to the point of chaos. In 399 BC, under pressure from the citizens of Athens, who were looking for a scapegoat for their defeat to Sparta, the government executed Plato\u2019s teacher, Socrates, under trumped up charges.<\/p>\n The fact that Plato grew up during a time when democracy seemed connected to so much tumult and disorder permanently turned him away from that form of government, as well as his plans to follow in his family\u2019s footsteps in becoming a politician. Instead, he decided to become a philosopher, exploring questions on what might constitute a better form of government, and many other subjects as well.<\/p>\n It wasn\u2019t just government and society that were in turmoil during Plato’s youth; the world of philosophy was in flux as well.<\/p>\n Before Plato\u2019s time, Greek philosophy had been extremely speculative in regards to the nature of the universe. In the century before his birth, philosophers and physicists on the island of Ionia began creating a cosmology based not on myth and religion, but grounded in materialism and observation. These pre-Socratic philosophers developed a primitive form of atomic theory that posited that all objects in nature are made of tiny particles that are constantly in flux. Instead of the sun being a mystical object pulled by Apollo\u2019s chariot, the Ionian physicists argued that it was merely a hot rock out in space. This more rational and materialist view of the universe fundamentally changed how Greeks approached morality and philosophy. If the world was constantly in flux, then why couldn\u2019t morality change as well? Perhaps there was no such thing as absolute Truth to guide the conduct of a person or culture.<\/p>\n During Plato\u2019s life, this line of thinking was taken up by a group called the Sophists. While they considered themselves philosophers, others viewed them as charlatans whose sole focus was teaching young men how to use rhetoric to win arguments and increase their political power. For the sophists, moral truth was relative. You could make any argument \u201ctrue\u201d as long as you used the right rhetorical technique. Critics felt this moral relativism based on the relativism of nature was a recipe for the corruption of character and political anarchy.<\/p>\n [aesop_image img=”https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/\/2016\/07\/Hemlock-1.jpg” align=”center” lightbox=”on” captionposition=”left”]<\/p>\n One of the main antagonists of the sophists was an enigmatic philosopher by the name of Socrates, who Plato began following sometime during his youth. Plato, along with other young men, hung around with Socrates in the agora or near the gymnasium, and eagerly took part in dialectic — question and answer sessions — about the nature of beauty, justice, and the good. Though the exact nature of Plato\u2019s relationship with Socrates is unknown, Socrates would profoundly influence the former\u2019s writing. In fact, in his \u201cSocratic\u201d dialogues, Plato would use Socrates as the mouthpiece for his own philosophic ideas.<\/p>\n In addition to Socrates, Plato\u2019s early philosophical development was influenced by the education he received as a child and young man which was steeped in the esoteric and math-based theories of Pythagoras. Many of Plato\u2019s most influential ideas can be directly attributed to Pythagoras, such as the immortality of the soul and its reincarnation, and the primacy of math and abstraction in guiding humans to pure truth.<\/p>\n Beyond the teachings of Socrates and Pythagoras, the last piece of Plato\u2019s main philosophic influences arose from his travels.<\/p>\n After the execution of his mentor, Plato left Athens and traveled to Italy, Sicily, Egypt, and Cyrene. It was during his time abroad that he began writing, starting with his famous Apology<\/em>.<\/p>\n In Egypt, Plato found inspiration for his ideal government — one that is so well-ordered it will remain unchanged for millennia — and aspects of Egyptian political life would influence his Republic<\/em> and Laws<\/em>. His very personal brush with the danger of tyranny would influence his future writing as well; while in Sicily, Dionysus I, the despotic ruler of Syracuse, threatened to kill him. Plato escaped death but was sold into slavery. Thankfully, a friendly chap by the name of Anniceris bought Plato\u2019s freedom and sent him home to Athens.<\/p>\n After returning to Greece, Plato founded one of civilization\u2019s earliest institutions of higher learning: the Academy. Built outside the walls of Athens in the mid-380s BC, the Academy was an exclusive organization where philosophers, scientists, and thinkers of all kinds pondered and argued about the nature of the universe and moral truth. Despite the name, the Academy was not a school in the sense of there being formal lectures and curricula, and a strict line between teachers and students (though there was a distinction between junior and senior members). Rather, it was a place where men (and a couple of exceptional women) could gather to engage in dialectic. While Plato oversaw the Academy, he continued to write, his most famous work from this period being the Republic<\/em>.<\/p>\n At the age the 60, at the behest of his friend Dion, he traveled back to Syracuse to tutor Dion\u2019s nephew, King Dionysius II (the son of the Dionysus that sold Plato into slavery). Plato and Dion hoped they could turn Dionysus II into the kind of \u201cphilosopher king\u201d Plato described in the Republic<\/em>. As it turned out, while Dionysus liked Plato\u2019s teachings well enough, he thought his uncle Dion had his own designs on the throne. So, the king exiled his uncle and kept Plato in Syracuse against his will. The philosopher was eventually able to make it back to Athens.<\/p>\n Plato spent the rest of his life writing and teaching in the Academy. When he was about 61, his most famous student joined the school — a young 18-year-old buck by the name of Aristotle.<\/p>\n Plato lived to the ripe old age of 80 and supposedly died peacefully in his sleep.<\/p>\n [aesop_chapter title=”Chapter 2: Plato’s Works” bgtype=”img” full=”on” img=”https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/\/2016\/07\/plato-works.jpg” bgcolor=”#888888″]<\/p>\n <\/p>\n Plato\u2019s writing output during his lifetime was prodigious. Thirty-five of his dialogues plus a few letters survive today. Besides elucidating big philosophic ideas that Western thinkers would grapple with for millennia to come, Plato\u2019s writing is surprisingly beautiful and even poetic. His use of symbolism and poetic symmetry are unmatched in philosophic writing. Like a good novel, you can read the works of Plato several times during your life and uncover a new insight or symbol each time.<\/p>\n Philosophers break Plato\u2019s writing down into three periods: Early, Middle, and Late. Knowing when Plato wrote a particular piece allows the reader to see the development of Plato\u2019s philosophical thought and how the treatises interrelate.<\/p>\n These works are from the period immediately after the death of Socrates and during Plato\u2019s travels abroad. They include the following:<\/p>\n The general theme of these early dialogues is ethics. Plato scholars also often categorize these dialogues as aporic<\/em>, meaning no decisive conclusion is reached as to the questions raised. As you read these early aporic dialogues, you might find yourself getting frustrated at Socrates (and, consequently, Plato) because after all the back and forth between Socrates and his interlocutors, they aren\u2019t seemingly any closer to arriving at an answer than they were at the beginning. This is by design; Plato wants the reader to be a little flummoxed — he disorients in order to re-orient.<\/p>\n These are works beginning at Plato\u2019s founding of the Academy. They include the following:<\/p>\n The main themes of Plato\u2019s Middle Period are moral order, epistemology, and ontology (the nature of existence and being). While Plato utilizes aporia and dialectic during his Middle Period, he begins to be more dogmatic and didactic about his ideas. For example, in the Republic<\/em>, Plato clearly lays out his vision as to the ideal forms of morality and government. Instead of a dialogue, it\u2019s more of a lecture. There\u2019s no question about what Plato thinks at the end.<\/p>\n Besides being more explicit with his ideas, Plato\u2019s writing during the Middle Period becomes much more dramatic and even poetic. In the place of dialogue, Plato utilizes a poetic form similar to Greek mythology and stories. The Republic<\/em> is the best example of the substitution of this stylistic form.<\/p>\n These are the works produced in the last twenty or so years of Plato\u2019s life. They include:<\/p>\n In the Late Period of Plato\u2019s philosophical writing, he revisits and even begins to critique his earlier ideas — his Theory of the Forms (more on what this is later) being the primary target of this retroactive reconsideration. For example, while in the Republic<\/em>, Plato argues that understanding the Forms (the eternal, unchangeable essences of all things and ideas) is necessary for understanding how to govern a state correctly, in his Laws<\/em>, he doesn\u2019t mention the Forms at all. Plato seems to make a shift from idealistic abstraction to figuring out how to work with what you\u2019ve got to create a harmonious society.<\/p>\n Plato\u2019s works from his Late Period also evince another shift in style. Instead of being poetic and dramatic, like the works from his Middle Period, Plato\u2019s later works are much more analytic and straightforward. Socrates also fades into the background. Instead of being the primary voice for Plato\u2019s ideas, Socrates is relegated to a cameo role.<\/p>\n While Socrates is a minor figure in Plato\u2019s later works, in most of his writings, the philosopher serves as the main protagonist. Reading Plato\u2019s dialogues, one feels that they are transcriptions of actual conversations Socrates had with the citizens of Athens.<\/p>\n Thus an important question to ask while reading Plato\u2019s Socratic dialogues is \u201cWho is speaking?\u201d Is it Socrates or Plato?<\/p>\n It\u2019s a tough question to answer.<\/p>\n Virtually the only sources we have of Socrates\u2019 philosophy are Plato and a contemporary writer named Xenophon. For example, we don\u2019t know if Socrates taught the Theory of the Forms or not. He may have. Or Plato may have decided to put his own words into Socrates\u2019 mouth. We just don\u2019t know.<\/p>\n Most scholars believe, however, that the ideas conveyed by Socrates in Plato\u2019s dialogues are most likely Plato\u2019s own. With that said, a reader of Plato\u2019s Socratic dialogues must be careful not to assume that everything<\/em> Socrates says is what Plato believes. Sometimes Plato uses Socrates to convey ideas he disagrees<\/em> with. For example, in Protagoras<\/em>, Socrates takes part in an absurd poetic exegesis that borders on the fallacious. For a straight shooter like Plato, that sort of argument would be unseemly.<\/p>\n While we don\u2019t have sources other than Plato and Xenophon to confirm the content <\/em>of Socrates\u2019 philosophy, there are other sources which confirm its style<\/em>: it almost assuredly took the form of the dialectic, or what\u2019s known as the Socratic dialogue.<\/p>\n All of this is to say, that while Plato primarily uses Socrates as the mouthpiece for his own ideas, he does accurately capture the way Socrates taught and discussed the art of philosophy.<\/p>\n While Plato was big on logic, he was a masterful writer who utilized literary and poetic symbolism to convey his ideas. His dialogues are not just works of philosophy but also works of art.<\/p>\n There are a few recurring themes or symbols that you\u2019ll discover while reading Plato. When they pop up, pay particular attention, because he is often making an important point when he uses them.<\/p>\n Math<\/strong>. As a student of Pythagoras, Plato saw math as a divine and pure language. It\u2019s the language of his ethereal Forms. So, whenever you see anything to do with geometry, math, or numbers, pay attention.<\/p>\n Travel<\/strong>. Plato scholar Michael Sugrue argues that Plato use his dialogues to try to make Socrates a \u201cnew Odysseus.\u201d Instead of traveling around the world, slaying one-eyed monsters to get back to his earthly home like the Homeric hero, Socrates is going on an intellectual journey back to his spiritual home amongst the Forms. Therefore, pay heed to traveling motifs in Plato\u2019s dialogues, even if it\u2019s just Socrates taking a walk; it often represents more than just physically moving from Point A to Point B.<\/p>\n Sun.<\/strong> Plato was a lover of logic. Apollo is the Greek god of logic, and also the sun god. So, when you see the sun mentioned in his dialogues, take note. For example, the sun takes on important significance in Plato\u2019s Allegory of the Cave in the Republic. <\/em><\/p>\n Besides looking for these big themes and symbols, pay attention to the person with whom Socrates is engaging in dialogue. Plato picked the people he did for a reason. They typically represent an idea that Plato was trying to prove wrong. These \u201cbackground checks\u201d will require doing some reading on the individual — Wikipedia is your friend here.<\/p>\nThe Political Background of Plato\u2019s Youth<\/h3>\n
The Backdrop of Plato\u2019s Education and Philosophy<\/h3>\n
Travels, Writing, and the Academy<\/h3>\n
Early Period<\/h3>\n
\n
Middle Period<\/h3>\n
\n
Late Period<\/h3>\n
\n
Is Plato or Socrates Speaking?<\/h3>\n
Themes to Look For While Reading Plato<\/h3>\n
Don’t Have Time to Finish the Rest of this eBook?<\/h2>\n
\n Sign up for our newsletter to get a PDF of it to read at your leisure.<\/a><\/strong>