A History of American Higher Education<\/i><\/a>, \u201cGoing to college was not a prerequisite to the practice of the learned professions. Learning often took place outside the academy in various forms of apprenticeship.\u201d So why did people attend college? It was about prestige, status, and civic leadership\/power.<\/p>\nEarly 1800s<\/b> \u2014 The number of colleges in America doubled in the previous quarter-century to around 20 institutions. While enrollment has gone up, it\u2019s still not popular amongst common folks. Tuition was fairly low and entrance requirements were flexible, so why didn\u2019t more attend college? Thelin explains:<\/p>\n\u201cGiven that tuition, room, and board charges at many colleges were minimal, why did more young men and women not opt to enroll? The American economy provides two very different explanations. On the one hand, many families could not afford tuition payments, however low; more important, they could not afford the forgone income or forfeited field labor of an elder child who went from farm to campus. On the other hand, in those areas where the American economy showed signs of enterprise and growth, a college degree\u2014even if affordable and accessible\u2014was perceived as representing lost time for making one\u2019s fortune. This perception held for such high-risk ventures as land development, mining, and business. It also pertained to the learned professions of law and medicine, where academic degrees were seldom if ever necessary for professional practice. The college in this era, then, was but one means of finding one\u2019s place in adult society and economy.\u201d<\/p><\/blockquote>\n
![\"Vintage](\"https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/\/2014\/03\/college2.jpg\")
Jefferson’s vision in founding UVA, was “to establish in the upper country of Virginia, and more centrally for the State, a University on a plan so broad and liberal and modern, as to be worth patronizing with the public support, and be a temptation to the youth of other States to come and drink of the cup of knowledge and fraternize with us.”<\/p><\/div>\n
1825<\/b> \u2014 University of Virginia opens. This is an important event because the building and founding of the university was championed by Thomas Jefferson, who had a lasting impact on education in America.<\/p>\n
After his presidency, Jefferson tackled the issue of education. He wanted to move away from the religious ties to college, and also wanted it to be paid for by the general public so that students who were less wealthy could attend. While he instituted other colleges in Virginia, those functioned more as high schools \u2014 teaching science, agriculture, how to make things by hand, etc. But UVA was a different matter. It was to be a proper university. Here, students would become lawyers, doctors, scientists, and government leaders. The university would educate the cream of the crop \u2014 those who were destined and guaranteed to be leaders in the community. To prove its separation from the church, in a physical manner, the university was centered around a library rather than a chapel. Jefferson\u2019s hope was that anyone could freely attend, as long as they had the ability \u2014 a perfect meritocracy. Well ahead of his time, free public education (in primary schooling) didn\u2019t overtake private education until the late 1800s.<\/p>\n
1850s<\/b> \u2014 Although commerce is becoming an increasingly large part of the American economy, there are only a handful of business-specific courses offered by US colleges. At this point, business professions were still seen primarily as on-the-job learning, and if anything, people took a 6-week course in bookkeeping or even business correspondence. I point this out because in just a few decades, university presidents would realize the potential money to be had in the growing constituency of future businessmen in America. And today, business is far and away the largest field of study in college, with about 20% of all degrees conferred being in business fields.<\/p>\n![\"Vintage](\"https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/\/2014\/03\/college5.jpg\")
Iowa State University. Land-grant universities coupled practical vocational training with classical studies.<\/p><\/div>\n
1862<\/b> \u2014 The Morrill Land-Grant Act is passed into law by President Lincoln, which allowed states to freely receive land for public universities \u2014 so-called land-grant colleges. This bill was created in response to the industrial revolution and the myriad of \u201cpractical\u201d professions this innovative time period was creating \u2014 machinists, farmers (as a vocation vs. a lifestyle), even engineers. The purpose of these land-grant institutions was:<\/p>\n\u201cwithout excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactic, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts\u2026in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life.\u201d \u2014Title 7, U.S. Code<\/p><\/blockquote>\n
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Mechanical Building, University of Illinois<\/p><\/div>\n
So they wouldn\u2019t exclude<\/i> classical studies, but they would add in more practical pursuits. It was at this time that college truly transitioned from being about civic leadership and classical (read: philosophical) learning to being about vocational learning. People were starting to realize that in a changing, industrial world, certain professions had specific educational needs. Ultimately, 70 U.S. institutions were created as a result of this act (including the second Morrill Land-Grand Act in 1890). The Morrill Land-Grant Act is often called the singular source of practical and affordable higher education.<\/p>\n
1880-1910<\/b> \u2014 The country sees many more universities emerge in these \u201cdecades of industry.\u201d Part of the reasoning for this is that universities ended up with more and more leaders of industry on their boards, who in turn asked the question, \u201cWhy can\u2019t college be run like a business?\u201d<\/p>\n
This period also sees the buildup of great wealth among prominent figures and therefore more discretionary income. This led to new levels of philanthropic generosity, and colleges topped the list of institutions to give to. Remember, although there weren\u2019t a great number of college alumni, many civic and business leaders had attended college. They gave back to their institutions. They also used their connections in this golden age of illustrated magazines to work their PR charm and get the physical beauty of many college campuses out in front of the nation\u2019s eyes.<\/p>\n
1900<\/b> \u2014 Although degrees are conferred after four years of education, it\u2019s still the case that the majority of students leave after just two years of school. After that point, they could earn their L.I. Certificate (License of Instruction), which would allow immediate employment in various fields. In fact, at William & Mary, 90% of students between 1880-1900 ended their studies after two years.<\/p>\n
It\u2019s also still the case that tuition prices are low enough at the majority of colleges to not be prohibitive. College degrees are not required for most professions, so the real struggle for university administrators (and wealthy donors) of this time period was actually convincing young men that college was even a necessary pursuit.<\/p>\n
![\"Vintage](\"https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/\/2014\/03\/college7.jpg\")
Colleges built architecturally-pleasing buildings to attract students. They still contribute to higher education’s romantic allure.<\/p><\/div>\n
Believe it or not, part of this convincing came in the form of campus architecture. New wealth as well as technological advancements in how buildings were constructed led to universities becoming more and more visually appealing to potential students. Whereas many colleges in the past had one or two prominent buildings, they could now make an entire campus extremely polished and even luxurious.<\/p>\n
1900<\/b> \u2014 College Entrance Examination Board formed (now known as just College Board). This organization seeks to standardize college entrance requirements in order to make sure the \u201cproduct\u201d of US colleges is up to par. Eventually, it\u2019s this organization that owns and operates SAT testing, CLEP testing, and the Advanced Placement (AP) program.<\/p>\n![\"Lecture](\"https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/\/2014\/03\/college8.jpg\")
Lecture at Cornell University, 1910. In the early 1900s, lectures and seminars began to become the standard form of teaching on campuses.<\/p><\/div>\n
Early 1900s<\/b> \u2014 Thelin lays out a set of characteristics that we see emerge that come to define the great modern American university of the time. You\u2019ll notice they carry an immense likeness to universities today:<\/p>\n\n- Philanthropy on a large scale<\/i>. Wealthy donors gave institutions a financial base that they had never before had, giving them the opportunity to grow, almost as businesses.<\/li>\n
- Strong university president<\/i>. In this age, presidents functioned almost as entrepreneurs. They were civically involved, politically involved, and leaders in their communities.<\/li>\n
- Full-time professor-experts<\/i>. As universities gained stature and wealth, professors were soon expected to devote all their time to their university. Full-time professors became the norm, and were expected to continue to research in their fields and be prominent intellectual voices.<\/li>\n
- Unified teaching methods<\/i>. Two teaching methods came to be the norm in American universities. First was the lecture. There was a large audience, little discussion, and an expert professor at the front. The second method would complement the first: the seminar. A professor would meet with a small group of advanced students to discuss and research a niche theme.<\/li>\n
- Curriculum<\/i>. Students in this era were being funneled into \u201cmajors\u201d of specific study. Classical education was quite broad in the 1600s and 1700s. Studies were becoming more and more focused in modern American colleges, particularly to business and practical sciences.<\/li>\n
- Modern facilities<\/i>. The campus itself emerged as a large and complex institution, often with the university library being the central intellectual hub.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
1910<\/b> \u2014 For the first time, colleges begin receiving more applications than they can accept, and therefore start implementing more rigid requirements. Before this time, colleges simply expanded the size of their classes. But, as going to college grew in popularity, the physical ability of a campus to handle students reached its apex. Colleges would either accept scores from an SAT-like exam, or work with partner high schools that had academic standards up to par.<\/p>\n![\"Vintage](\"https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/2014\/03\/studentarmy.jpg\")
Student Army Training Corps, Syracuse University. The S.A.T.C was established at 528 colleges and universities across the nation. It effectively turned the college into a military post and every male student into an active duty soldier in the Army. The military got to train future officers and colleges got to maintain their enrollment numbers, rather than have all their students drafted and immediately sent off to fight.<\/p><\/div>\n
1917<\/b> \u2014 Student Army Training Corp (a predecessor to the ROTC program) created by President Woodrow Wilson. This helped alleviate colleges\u2019 fears about WWI\u2019s impact on higher education. Colleges that participated in these on-campus training programs received generous repayment per student.<\/p>\n![\"Spectators](\"https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/2014\/03\/football.jpg\")
Spectators at a Syracuse football game in Archbold Stadium, late 1920s. The fun of watching collegiate sports became a big draw for college attendance and school loyalty.<\/p><\/div>\n
1920-1944<\/b> \u2014 The period between the world wars sees college attendance increase five-fold, from 250,000 to 1.3 million. The percentage of young Americans (age 17-20) enrolled in college jumped from 5% to 15% between 1917 and 1937. Part of this was because of another wave of donations coming in after WWI, so colleges had more money to pour into campus architecture, and especially large football and athletics facilities. College sports begin to take hold of America\u2019s attention, and therefore the attention of young men and women as well.<\/p>\n![\"Vintage](\"https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/2014\/03\/collegefrat.jpg\")
In the 1920s, student life began to become more buttoned down.<\/p><\/div>\n
1920<\/b> \u2014 The Roaring Twenties not only impacts American society on a grand scale, it begins to change the culture of American colleges as well. That riotous environment of large parties, bathtub gin, and gambling seeps into university life. This is a stark change from the gentlemen scholar environment that previously dominated college culture.<\/p>\n
Mid-1920s<\/b> \u2014 The uniquely American invention of the junior college becomes more and more popular. The idea is to truly give educational access to all teenagers. It functions as the first two years of work towards a bachelor\u2019s degree. Over time, these schools also take on technical and vocational studies that prepare students for specific niche careers. By 1940, there are 150,000 students in junior colleges, and the majority receive their associate\u2019s degree and then head to a traditional 4-year institution to finish out their bachelor\u2019s.<\/p>\n
1930s<\/b> \u2014 Tuition prices at private schools begin to rapidly escalate. Between 1920 and 1940, the average tuition nearly doubled from $70 ($600 today) to $133 ($1,100 today). As this change came during the Great Depression (and Ivy League schools raised prices even higher), the prestigious colleges became even more out of reach for the general consumer, and all but a small percentage of American families are able to afford private schools. Meanwhile, state institutions remain fairly affordable, and some are still even free to in-state students.<\/p>\n
1940s<\/b> \u2014 While more Americans are going to college, there is still little specific value to the job market. Most occupations aren\u2019t connected to academic credentials. If anything, simply being an alumnus of a certain school garnered more respect than specific skills learned.<\/p>\nA Timeline of Higher Education Post-1944<\/b><\/h3>\n
World War II dramatically changed higher education in America. While enrollment of course dipped a little bit during the war, the research facilities of many colleges became breeding grounds for military advancements. This is when the relationship between universities and the US government really became buddy-buddy. With the success of the war efforts, the attention given to colleges after WWII in terms of funding and grants and bills passed led to increases in enrollment that continue today.<\/p>\n
![\"Vintage](\"https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/\/2014\/03\/collegegi.jpg\")
After WWII, two million veterans took advantage of the GI Bill to go to college.<\/p><\/div>\n
1944<\/b> \u2014 The 1944 GI Bill has provisions that allow free tuition for WWII vets in order to assimilate them back into a \u201cnormal\u201d American life. It\u2019s not actually expected to be very popular, but by 1950 over two million vets had taken advantage of the program. Since colleges knew they would be reimbursed directly by the government, they took to the powers of marketing to encourage vets to enroll. Ultimately, this meant that universities saw two- and three-fold increases in enrollment in just a few years\u2019 time.<\/p>\n
1957<\/b> \u2014 Russia\u2019s launching of Sputnik provides another wave of research money to American universities, as the country felt it had to keep up with Russian technological advancements. Because of the success of the university\u2019s role as a WWII research vessel, more and more money is being poured into schools to act as the government\u2019s research arm. By 1963, there is $1.5 billion being received from the federal government by universities. For many schools, what they receive is anywhere from 20 to 80 percent of the total operating budget.<\/p>\n
1960s<\/b> \u2014 Because public schools get the majority of government funding, they are able to keep tuition prices low. Private schools, however, are having to continue to raise tuition prices in order to meet inflation and also provide a \u201cluxury\u201d product that would differentiate them from public institutions. In order for people to afford these schools, they come up with creative financial aid packages to get students in classrooms. They utilize a mix of grants, loans, and work-study opportunities. They tout small class sizes, study abroad opportunities, and niche class topics to stand apart from state schools. Since these schools are now setting themselves apart, they of course become even more prestigious to the public, and everyone wants in.<\/p>\n
1965<\/b> \u2014 Community colleges (previously junior colleges) begin to see the genesis of their reputation as \u201cinferior\u201d schools. In the decades following WWII, 4-year institutions were seeing more applications than they could admit. The students who weren\u2019t admitted would go to two years of community college, and then transfer to the 4-year school. Hence they became schools for less gifted students \u2014 you only went if you couldn\u2019t get in somewhere more prestigious. In spite of this, students who transferred to 4-year schools after community college actually did better in their final two years than traditional students.<\/p>\n
1972<\/b> \u2014 The Basic Educational Opportunities Grants (BEOG) program takes effect. Instead of the government subsidizing schools<\/i> for student tuition, they\u2019ll now give money directly to the students<\/i>. Later, these grants are renamed Pell Grants. These were need-based grants given to full-time students, and those students were required to remain in good academic standing. The basic structure of Pell Grants remains nearly the same today, with the infamous FAFSA forms determining how much is given to each student.<\/p>\n
![\"San](\"https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/2014\/03\/san.jpg\")
<\/p>\n
1975<\/b> \u2014 For the first time in 24 years, college enrollment drops from the previous year. Due to student anti-war protests, the rise of independent research institutes, and various other factors, the government pulls a large amount of funding for universities. This leaves them in a bit of a crisis, as many of them had operating budgets that relied on this funding. The golden age of the American university is officially over, and schools must re-invent themselves to again gain favorable reputation. This led to two major changes: First, colleges began paying more attention to what students\/parents wanted in terms of services and curriculum offered. Second, colleges began to welcome and even recruit part-time, transfer, and older, \u201cnon-traditional\u201d students \u2014 groups who were previously just an afterthought.<\/p>\n
1980<\/b> \u2014 As private universities continue their tuition hikes, and now state schools follow due to funding cuts, more than half of first-time college freshmen are enrolled at community colleges. And yet, Thelin writes that \u201cthe dominant image of the \u2018real college experience\u2019 remained indelibly linked to the four-year, fulltime residential tradition.\u201d<\/p>\n
Early 1980s<\/b> \u2014 The discovery of the so-called Mt. Holyoke phenomenon: Charging higher tuition leads to a greater number of applicants, as well as academically higher quality applicants. To the college applicant (and their parents), price equals prestige. This phenomenon has not abated.<\/p>\n
2008<\/b> \u2014 The recession hits, in large part due to the mortgage bubble. In the 80s and 90s, banks were giving mortgages at incredibly low interest rates to anyone that applied. There were hardly any checks in place to determine if people could actually pay their bills. As we\u2019ll see in the next article, many economists are saying that student debt could be the next economic bubble. The recession means that more and more students need more and more financial aid in order to attend college.<\/p>\n
2010<\/b> \u2014 Criticism begins to surface about the connection between a college degree and employment. While colleges tout the need for a degree to be employed, many graduating students \u2014 even in traditionally high placement fields like business and medicine \u2014 are not finding work. Thelin notes that \u201cmost colleges have succumbed to the misplaced belief that there is an indelible connection between academics and employment.\u201d<\/p>\n
2010<\/b> \u2014 Big-time college athletic programs take more and more heat, especially in terms of how much of the general operating budget they consume. Only 17 colleges have self-supporting athletic programs \u2014 that is, programs that are funded entirely through their own revenue. At most large schools, football budgets alone exceed what the athletic department brings in.<\/p>\n
2010<\/b> \u2014 Student loan debt overtakes credit card debt in America for the first time. The average student who took out loans for school owes $25,000, largely to the U.S. government (they bought out most student loans during the recession). Meanwhile, the unemployment rate for 20-24-year-olds hovers at around 15%. This makes it difficult to get a job after college, and students are unable to pay back their debt. Because of this, almost half of college graduates aged 20-24 are back at home, living with their parents<\/a>.<\/p>\nToday<\/b> \u2014 Colleges are increasingly running into financial problems. Part of this can certainly be blamed on the athletics funding mentioned above. Other factors include overstaffed administrative offices, many of whom are overpaid (the average VP or dean \u2014 of which there are often a dozen or more per school \u2014 makes well over six figures, and up to seven figures), as well as colleges feeling the need to cater to prospective students in the form of luxurious dining halls, dormitories, fitness centers, and coffee shops. Commercialism has found its way to the university. Because of these increasing costs, tuition prices are rising at about three times the rate of inflation.<\/p>\nConcluding Thoughts <\/b><\/h3>\n
![\"Vintage](\"https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/2014\/03\/uvaprint01.jpg\")
<\/p>\n
As you can see, the place of higher learning in American life underwent a slew of changes in the first decade or so of the twentieth century, and we\u2019re seeing the same here in the first decade(s) of the twenty-first. A hundred years ago, colleges were experiencing a boom. Enrollments went up, campuses were re-done into spectacular complexes, even the mass media began to recognize the college student as the American norm for young adults (particularly young men). Much of that was due to the growing middle class of America. The late 1800s and early 1900s saw the American corporation take off. Mom and pop shops were no longer the norm, and more and more American men ended up in cubicles. While specific skills were still learned on the job, corporations wanted men who learned leadership, problem solving, and critical thinking at college.<\/p>\n
Today, we\u2019re seeing changes in the opposite direction. Schools themselves are seeing increasing financial problems, students (and their parents) are not able to pay for school, and the disconnect between a college education and gainful employment continues to grow. A hundred years ago, the college boom changed American culture. Will the 2008 recession and the growth of technical jobs and entrepreneurship in America change American culture and attitudes towards college again? Only time will tell. Next week, we\u2019ll take a look at the pros and cons of attending a 4-year institution.<\/p>\n
_____________________________________<\/p>\n
Sources:
\nCreating the College Man<\/a> <\/i>by Daniel Clark
\nA History of American Higher Education<\/a> <\/i>by John Thelin<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"“A college education unfits rather than fits men to affairs.” \u2013Andrew Carnegie, 1901 Over one hundred years ago, one of the richest and most successful men in America, Andrew Carnegie, thought that college was not only unnecessary, but actually detrimental for the average young man. At that point in our country\u2019s history, only 4% of […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":26,"featured_media":38757,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[424,6,42279],"tags":[42287],"yst_prominent_words":[],"class_list":["post-38740","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-career","category-featured","category-money-wealth","tag-college"],"featured_image_urls":{"large":"https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/2014\/03\/38-500x280.jpg","aom":"https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/2014\/03\/38-372x230.jpg","reactor-320":"https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/2014\/03\/38-320x321.jpg"},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/beta.artofmanliness.com\/app-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/38740","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/beta.artofmanliness.com\/app-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/beta.artofmanliness.com\/app-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/beta.artofmanliness.com\/app-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/26"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/beta.artofmanliness.com\/app-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=38740"}],"version-history":[{"count":19,"href":"https:\/\/beta.artofmanliness.com\/app-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/38740\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":125883,"href":"https:\/\/beta.artofmanliness.com\/app-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/38740\/revisions\/125883"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/beta.artofmanliness.com\/app-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/38757"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/beta.artofmanliness.com\/app-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=38740"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/beta.artofmanliness.com\/app-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=38740"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/beta.artofmanliness.com\/app-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=38740"},{"taxonomy":"yst_prominent_words","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/beta.artofmanliness.com\/app-json\/wp\/v2\/yst_prominent_words?post=38740"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}
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<\/p>\n![\"Google](\"https:\/\/content.artofmanliness.com\/uploads\/\/2014\/03\/google-screenshot.png\")
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